Letter from the Superintendent

Members of the West Point Team,

Our unwavering dedication to developing the Corps of Cadets into commissioned leaders of character for the Army continues to be exceptional. I extend my sincere gratitude to those of you who have contributed to our critical mission, and to those who are beginning their service at this hallowed institution.

All members of the West Point Team - cadets and all military and civilian staff, faculty, and coaches assigned to West Point - play a crucial role in developing commissioned leaders of character who live honorably, lead honorably, and demonstrate excellence. Developing commissioned leaders of character is our mission-essential task and thus is my top priority. This crucial role extends to stewarding our culture of character growth, a culture that is vital to being the world’s preeminent leader development institution.

Although we all contribute in unique ways to building, educating, training, and inspiring the Corps of Cadets, we all must be committed to developing the character of cadets. Character development is the most important thing we do at the United States Military Academy (USMA). I expect you to take advantage of every interaction with a cadet as an opportunity for character development, to set a standard for professional behavior, and to encourage character growth within each other. This is our collective responsibility.

Developing Leaders of Character (DLC) is our foundational document. It summarizes at the institutional level how we achieve our mission through the West Point Leader Development System. All lower-echelon publications should be consistent with the guidance it provides. DLC is meant to empower your actions toward effectively developing leaders of character; the document serves as my commander’s intent for the achievement of our mission. Read it and understand your role in accomplishing our mission.

In addition to DLC, I also expect every member of our team to read and understand their roles in the USMA Strategy and in my annual guidance. The Strategy describes my priorities in five Lines of Effort (LOEs); these LOEs prioritize areas of growth as we continue to achieve our vision of being the world’s preeminent leader development institution. My annual guidance is informed by our assessments and further prioritizes our efforts and resources.

In closing, I ask you to be positive, do your best, and be a good teammate. Only together will we continue to develop leaders of character who live honorably, lead honorably, and demonstrate excellence. Thank you for your commitment.

STEVEN W. GILLAND
Lieutenant General, U.S. Army
Superintendent

Endnotes and definitions of italicized terms can be found in Glossaries and Endnotes by Section.

*Endnotes and definitions of key terms in the USMA Mission can be found in Glossaries and Endnotes by Section.

West Point Leader Development System (WPLDS)

The West Point Leader Development System (WPLDS), the comprehensive and integrated approach to character development outlined throughout Developing Leaders of Character (DLC), distinguishes West Point as the preeminent leader development institution and requires a culture that prioritizes character growth throughout the pursuit of academic, military, and physical excellence. This holistic development is achieved through WPLDS.

To develop cadets into leaders of character, cadets are immersed in WPLDS, which is designed to harness every facet of the West Point experience while leveraging specific developmental events and activities to reinforce and assess character and honorable living. 

Cadets’ primary role in WPLDS is to take ownership of their personal development, seeking to grow professionally and become leaders of character. They are also expected to serve as exemplary role models and trainers, enhancing the development of peers and followers.

WPLDS Graphical Depiction in Detail

WPLDS is the purposeful integration of character and leader development through the academic, military, and physical development programs, all within a culture of character growth. WPLDS provides the structure in which West Point accomplishes the mission of developing commissioned leaders of character (CLC).

WPLDS promotes cadet development by integrating the three developmental programs and comprehensive character development at the institutional, program, course, and activity levels. 

• At the institution level, USMA leaders ensure the required experiences sufficiently cover and reinforce the WPLDS outcomes.
• At the program level, integration occurs when leaders ensure courses or activities intentionally connect learning across experiences, especially those contributing to Comprehensive Character Development.
• Staff and faculty find meaningful ways of integrating some facet of character development into their efforts. All faculty, staff, and coaches provide formal or informal feedback; many also systematically plan for and assist in structured reflection at critical points throughout the cadet’s experiences.
• Integration occurs when faculty, staff, and coaches form, coordinate, or blend seemingly disparate developmental experiences into a unified and synergistic whole greater than the sum of the parts, thus achieving a greater developmental effect. 

All developmental experiences overlap in the WPLDS graphical depiction to underscore this goal. The most impactful development occurs when cadets integrate the knowledge and practice gained across the breadth of their developmental efforts.

Endnotes and definitions of italicized terms can be found in Glossaries and Endnotes by Section.

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Endnotes and definitions of italicized terms can be found in Glossaries and Endnotes by Section.

Back to Critical Roles

The West Point Experience

WPLDS is enacted through an integrated core experience that is sequential and progressive in complexity and provides a common foundation for each cadet. The conceptual layout of the West Point Experience graphic presents these experiences sorted by development and time. 

Viewed together, the conceptual layout of the West Point Experience graphic and the WPLDS graphical description help the West Point team to visualize how components of WPLDS contribute to cadet development, and then to empower everyone to better integrate those components.

Conceptual Layout of the West Point Experience in Detail

From Plebe year through Firstie year, cadets progress through rigorous academic study, physical training, military leadership roles, and continuous character development within a culture of character growth. Each milestone (Acceptance Day Ceremony, CFT  Graduation, Affirmation Ceremony, Ring Weekend, and commissioning) marks growth toward becoming a Commissioned Leader of Character (CLC).

Endnotes and definitions of italicized terms can be found in Glossaries and Endnotes by Section.

Cadet development is more fully realized when it includes the components of West Point’s Deliberate Leader Growth Model ⁷(DLGM). 

Where the Conceptual Layout of the West Point Experience summarizes the West Point experience, the DLGM shows how leader development can be optimally fostered by faculty, staff, coaches, and cadets - ultimately cultivating more self-aware, adaptive leaders of character. 

The DLGM takes advantage of important psychological elements to create a useful leader development model leading to deliberate growth. This model can be used to design and implement a specific activity within WPLDS or to integrate activities within or between programs. 

The DLGM in Detail

West Point’s culture is a critical enabler for leader growth. By integrating evidence-based psychological principles with West Point’s proven institutional practices, the DLGM serves as a powerful approach for shaping leaders who exemplify virtue in action.

This deliberate, comprehensive approach fosters growth in key areas, including the moral foundation and adaptive mindset necessary for service as a commissioned leader of character (CLC). 

The following briefly describes each of the components of the model.

Endnotes and definitions of italicized terms can be found in Glossaries and Endnotes by Section.

Culture of Character Growth

West Point’s culture of character growth sets the context for developing leaders of character and shapes individual behavior. It is a vital enabler for all character development activities and is what truly distinguishes USMA from other commissioning sources. Our culture underscores our place as the world’s preeminent leader development institution.

This culture of character growth, which exists within the context of the organizational and regulatory structure of the academy, and the Corps, consists of artifacts, traditions, expectations, and social norms that reinforce character development if emphasized correctly. 

West Point’s artifacts of monuments, statues, and buildings provide a constant reminder of the importance of striving to develop strong character to maintain West Point’s legacy of excellence. 

Traditions that transcend and connect generations are a source of inspiration when cadets memorize plebe knowledge, participate in similar training, and overcome similar challenges in cadet life. 

Every member of the West Point team stewards this culture and strives to meet long-standing expectations of living honorably, including upholding the Cadet Honor Code, and providing honorable service to the Nation.

West Point’s culture also requires social norms that enable effective character development and must be consciously maintained:

• Be a role model. Moral exemplars are a powerful influence on our character. Everyone, including cadets, should provide a consistent example of what right looks like.
• Make every activity count. Teammates recognize that every activity and interaction between teammates is a character development opportunity. We have a collective responsibility to take advantage of deliberate and spontaneous teaching moments whenever and wherever they occur
• Demonstrate initiative. We all have an obligation to demonstrate initiative on how to connect character development to all activities in our sphere of influence. We cannot wait for detailed guidance to find ways to develop and strengthen character.
• Integrate within and across programs. West Point does not have a separate character program; the best way to achieve our WPLDS outcomes is to infuse character development opportunities into all areas of cadet life. Every member of the West Point Team and every program is expected to find ways to connect and synchronize the various activities in WPLDS.

Teammates must be mindful of social norms that may unintentionally undermine character development. For example, the phrase “Cooperate and Graduate!” can encourage teamwork but, if misinterpreted, may excuse dishonorable behavior in the name of cooperation.

Similarly, while West Point staff, faculty, and coaches are experts in their fields, some may see character development as a secondary task rather than a core responsibility. This mindset can diminish its importance, influencing cadets to adopt the same attitude. 

Every member of the West Point team must recognize and challenge negative social norms. When you encounter one, speak out and replace it with a positive, character-building alternative.

When interacting with cadets, it can be helpful to remember the three key components of character development.¹⁶

• Character is caught indicates that character is learned through socialization and through watching the actions of others. Role models and exemplars play a significant part in others “catching” character; thus, every member of the West Point team must be committed to demonstrating strong character.
• Character is taught in formal and informal settings within the curriculum. Courses in the Academic Program and during several military program activities deliberately teach character, but character education can also happen in spontaneous teaching moments that occur in real time and in context.
• Character is sought is a reminder that people are active in their own character development. USMA provides opportunities for cadets to cultivate character as they seek ways to demonstrate virtuous excellence. If cadets do not pursue those opportunities with the motivation to improve themselves, then culture and teaching will not have the desired effect.

Professional Climate Within a Culture of Character Growth

Like the culture of character growth, West Point’s professional climate is vital in shaping the cadet experience and enables character to be effectively caught. Different from culture, climate manifests in the immediate attitudes and actions toward each other and the collective outlook of the organization. 

Less persistent than culture, climate is temporary, changing due to current leadership, policies, academics, training, and events. A professional climate requires respect for the dignity of all individuals and is expected across our enterprise. West Point members look out for each other and strive to be good teammates within and across offices, departments, directorates, the academy, and West Point as a whole. 

West Point provides a growth-oriented environment to maximize opportunities for everyone to succeed. Teammates hold each other accountable to high standards, and that accountability is welcome.¹⁷

Understanding the relationship between the culture of character growth and the professional climate enhances and empowers efforts to develop (and sustain) the character of every West Point teammate. Promoting both is a continuous endeavor that requires vigilance, personal effort, and mutual accountability.

Endnotes and definitions of italicized terms can be found in Glossaries and Endnotes by Section.

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Comprehensive Character Development (CCD)

Comprehensive Character Development (CCD) is the set of cadet developmental experiences that create the capacity for cadets to demonstrate trustworthy character. These activities, derived from each of the developmental programs, are shown in the Conceptual Layout of the West Point Experience. The combined effect of all these activities, implemented within our culture of character growth, is to develop each graduate’s reliability to do the right thing, in the right way, at the right time, for the right reason, and with the right attitude.

Character development is not solely an intellectual exercise in moral reasoning. It also requires fostering the right motivations, skills, and capacity to ensure follow-through from knowing what to do and then implementing that decision with virtuous action. 

In many situations that require moral action, there is often a gap between knowing and doing the right thing. While most people can describe what moral action they should take, they frequently struggle to take the right action for a variety of reasons. Comprehensive character development is designed to help close the gap between knowing and doing.

In other situations, the required moral action is less clear because there are competing desired outcomes that require some compromise between virtues or values. In these situations, leaders are expected to exercise judgment to find the best answer for the situation. Cadets develop their judgment through experience and education in moral reasoning. Once they decide the most appropriate moral action for the situation, they face the same challenges of closing the gap between knowing and doing.

Components of Comprehensive Character Development (CCD)

The components of USMA’s CCD help guide and categorize character development efforts to increase the likelihood of someone taking the right action for the right reasons in the right manner. Each component contributes to a cadet’s ability to close the gap between knowing and doing the right thing.

• Character Education: Set expectations and internalize officer identity.
• Leadership Skills: Empower leaders to act with confidence.
• Holistic Health and Fitness: Build personal capacity for peak performance.
• Professional Climate: Enable leaders to live and lead honorably.
• Stewardship & Accountability: Inspire and motivate to demonstrate excellence.
• Primary Prevention: Prevent harmful behaviors and promote protective factors.

Individually, none of these categories is sufficient for ensuring the proper action or behavior. A weakness in one of these categories makes it more difficult to act honorably. For these reasons, all WPLDS experiences should contribute to one or more of these categories as part of the comprehensive character development intended for each cadet.

As every cadet completes the West Point experience, they complete developmental experiences for each of these six CCD components. The desired outcome of this comprehensive integrated approach to character development is that every graduate can make the connections between these various experiences and understand how they enable a graduate to be a commissioned leader of character who lives honorably, leads honorably, and demonstrates excellence. While our graduates will never be perfect, they are prepared for continued character growth for the rest of their lives, always striving to strengthen their own character.

Endnotes and definitions of italicized terms can be found in Glossaries and Endnotes by Section.

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Character Education Component

Character education helps cadets internalize an officer identity - ensuring they not only have the knowledge of what is expected of an Army officer, but the desire to meet those expectations. Character education begins with the Cadet Honor Code, an unremitting foundational standard from the moment Cadets arrive on R-Day.¹⁸ 

Building on that foundation, cadets learn the Army Values and how to apply them in multiple situations. Ultimately, added character education develops additional virtues and gives them the knowledge and motivation for fulfilling the moral obligations of the Constitutional oath they will take upon graduation. 

Character Education Component Framework in Detail

A comprehensive approach to character development requires virtues that go beyond the Cadet Honor Code and the Army Values. The Character Education Component Framework is based on virtue ethics¹⁹ and provides a more comprehensive consideration of the virtues necessary to be a person of character and a commissioned leader of character.

Moral, civic, intellectual, and performance virtues are necessary for anyone to live a good life and to have integrity. 

Martial virtues are also applicable to others, but are uniquely important to the Army profession. Developing the martial virtues in the framework defines an honorable person within the Army profession. 

Finally, the virtues included in this framework are embedded throughout the Army doctrine for the Army Profession and Leadership, Mission Command, and Holistic Health and Fitness. This framework simply organizes these virtues into a single source. 

Once a solid foundation of the Cadet Honor Code and Army Values is established early in the WPLDS experience, cadets should expand their character development to incorporate the virtues and continue that development for the rest of their lives. 

In a culture of character growth, every member of the West Point team should be a moral exemplar who demonstrates these virtues in their own lives.

Character education also addresses primary prevention of harmful behaviors because character and primary prevention are understood as mutually reinforcing endeavors. By developing and practicing character virtues, any trust-eroding behaviors are expected to diminish. Further, strong character and good judgment support primary prevention by developing the skills and motivation for effective intervention and promoting a professional climate.

Endnotes and definitions of italicized terms can be found in Glossaries and Endnotes by Section.

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Leadership Skills Component

While effective character education is necessary, it is not sufficient for closing the gap between knowing and doing the right thing. The Leadership Skills Component Framework shows the leadership skills cadets need to empower them with the confidence to do the right thing. 

Self-management and relationship management are important skills for implementing the right moral action. These skills are emphasized in Army Leadership Doctrine.²⁰ Additionally, many of these skills align with best practices in primary prevention to reduce harmful behaviors or risk/protective factors for building a professional climate.

Leadership Skills Component in Detail

The first two categories of self-awareness and self-management focus on individual development that enables a cadet to set a good example of self-control in all situations. The other two categories are necessary to build cohesion, communicate effectively, motivate others, and resolve conflict. 

Most of these skills are embedded throughout Army Profession and Leadership Doctrine.²¹  Just as prevention is interwoven into character development, it is also reinforced by mastering these leadership skills. The knowledge, skills, and abilities of primary prevention, such as intervening in the face of harmful behaviors, supporting one’s teammates, and maintaining cohesion and trust within one’s team, are the very skills of an engaged and active leader.

Endnotes and definitions of italicized terms can be found in Glossaries and Endnotes by Section.

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Holistic Health and Fitness Component

Finally, cadets build capacity for moral action through holistic health and fitness.²² A person who is physically, emotionally, mentally, and spiritually well has a higher capacity to act honorably. A leader who is tired, stressed, emotionally unwell, and spiritually unmoored will find it more difficult to act honorably.

Holistic Health and Fitness Component in Detail

Army Doctrine for Holistic Health and Fitness ²³ establishes five categories of fitness included in the Holistic Health and Fitness Component framework. The skills within these categories build the capacity for excellent physical performance and the capacity to serve as a commissioned leader of character who achieves peak performance in all areas. 

The significant overlap between these categories and other aspects of the West Point approach to character development and primary prevention of harmful behaviors illustrates the mutual reinforcement of these concepts and the need for effective integration to ensure we provide the necessary repetitions without being unnecessarily repetitive.

Endnotes and definitions of italicized terms can be found in Glossaries and Endnotes by Section.

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Stewardship and Accountability, Professional Climate, and Primary Prevention Components

The Character Education, Leadership Skills, and Holistic Health components emphasize individual development. However, other contextual factors influence a person’s behavior. A person may know what to do, have the skills to act, and possess the capacity for right action, but the environment could be an obstacle. 

The Stewardship and Accountability component reminds cadets that their actions impact the team. Stewardship inspires cadets to take the long view of preserving the honor of the academy and the Army profession. Accountability motivates cadets to develop habits that ensure honorable living in themselves and others. 

The Professional Climate component creates a climate absent the fear of ostracization or retaliation, enabling honorable action by all members of the West Point team. 

Finally, the Primary Prevention component seeks to develop knowledge, skills, and abilities through effective education to reduce harmful behaviors that erode trust, cohesion, and respect among teammates.

Endnotes and definitions of italicized terms can be found in Glossaries and Endnotes by Section.

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Endnotes and definitions of italicized terms can be found in Glossaries and Endnotes by Section.

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Stewardship

The primary professional responsibility of all faculty, staff, coaches, and cadets is to develop commissioned leaders of character. Character development occurs across all programs and in every environment. While all are expected to set the example as role models who foster a positive environment, every member of the West Point team also has a unique role related to cadet development and stewarding West Point’s culture of character growth.

Primary Roles

The following leaders and groups have a primary role in our shared responsibility to develop and mentor cadets to become commissioned leaders of character.

• Superintendent: The Superintendent is the senior character development leader and integrator, being ultimately accountable for the development of commissioned leaders of character.
• The Academic Board (AB): The AB advises the Superintendent and serves as the supervisory and integrative body of the academic, military, and physical programs, all grounded within West
  Point’s culture of character growth.
  • The WPLDS Committee promotes and assesses the effective implementation of WPLDS, in particular the WPLDS outcomes, and makes recommendations on any needed improvements to the AB.
• The Policy Board (PB): The PB advises the Superintendent on comprehensive and integrated planning, resourcing, implementation, and assessment efforts, which enable effective implementation of the USMA Strategy.
• The Dean of the Academic Board:
  • Ensures that faculty and staff meet institutional expectations (see the Superintendent’s Letter, Our Mission-Essential Task, and The West Point Team of Character Practitioners).
  • Clearly defines, plans for, and assesses academic program outcomes to ensure that they support the WPLDS outcomes.
  • Ensure that character development activities are appropriately integrated within the academic program and across program boundaries.
  • Ensures that adequate time is allocated on the AB agenda to routinely discuss matters related to character development.
  • Identifies and addresses the impact that any program changes have on other programs and on character development.
  • Ensures that specified programs maintain program accreditation.
  • As part of the annual report process, it updates the Superintendent on character development integration.
• The Commandant:
  • Ensures that cadets, faculty, and staff meet institutional expectations(see the Superintendent’s Letter, Our Mission-Essential Task, and The West Point Team of Character Practitioners).
  • Clearly defines, plans for, and assesses military and physical program outcomes to ensure that they support the WPLDS outcomes.
  • Oversees the effective implementation and integration of character development throughout the directorate and across program boundaries. This includes oversight of the honor education program.
  • Provides oversight of the Honor System.
  • Identifies and addresses the impact that any program changes have on other programs and on character development.
  • As part of the annual report process, it updates the Superintendent on character development integration.
• The Athletic Director:
  • Ensures that coaches and APWAD staff members meet the expectations (see the Superintendent’s Letter, Our Mission-Essential Task, and The West Point Team of Character Practitioners), instill a commitment to West Point over individual and team goals and accolades, and train and inspire teams to compete to win with honor and sportsmanship.
  • As part of the annual report process, it updates the Superintendent on character development integration.

Role of All Members of the West Point Team in Stewardship

Character development at West Point is not confined to a single program or course; rather, it is woven into the fabric of the entire cadet experience. The primary professional responsibility of all members of the West Point Team is to develop leaders of character. While every member has a unique role related to cadet development, all are expected to set the example as role models who foster a positive leader development environment.

A shuttle driver here at West Point challenges the cadets each time he drops them off at Library Corner: “Okay Future Sirs, Future Ma’ams – I need you to do one thing today if you get nothing else done: Find a mirror and remind yourself how awesome you are.” The cadets often smile in relief, having dreaded one further task coming from such a surprising source. This driver was not told by his supervisor to make this comment with each half-hour loop around the post. Nor is it in the driver’s job description. Furthermore, if saying this line to cadets was a directive, it would lose its effectiveness. Instead, this driver has grasped the impactful future of his passengers, as well as their current hardships in preparing for that future. While fulfilling the specific need of transportation, he bolsters it with the general need for a little inspiration, for setting a tone that helps steward the culture so essential to West Point’s mission. The driver provides an example of understanding the purpose of this place and letting it steer his daily work.

This driver also illustrates a key purpose of DLC: it exists to empower the West Point team in living out the charge to grow leaders of character. If you, the reader, are on this team, then you need to provide your own example. It is not enough for you to merely mimic the driver’s words; it would ring just as hollow as if he had been directed to say them. You must find your own way of advancing West Point’s purpose in your own role.

Your unique position enables a unique contribution. Do you really think there is no contribution you can make? Is there no modeling of good character that cadets might catch from you? Is there no insight or standard that you might teach them?

You must discover your own way of advancing and integrating cadet development. Find yourself in the DLC and fulfill your part.

Endnotes and definitions of italicized terms can be found in Glossaries and Endnotes by Section.

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Continuous Improvement

If we are not improving, we are stagnating. As the world’s preeminent leader development institution that provides the leaders of character that the Army and Nation need, West Point must continuously improve at every level of cadet development.

Continuous improvement begins at the individual level, where faculty and staff provide cadets with feedback on meeting desired outcomes and through numerous methods, e.g., daily feedback given to a cadet by the instructor, cadet chain of command, or Tac Team, and feedback on formal assessments.

An essential part of continuous improvement for every developmental activity is to know what the desired end state is. An end state for cadet development is often referred to as a learning outcome (LO). All development activities at West Point should have a desired end state or LO.

Course, program, and WPLDS outcomes then take advantage of a curriculum map, which shows the activity and outcome relationship; “after examining assessment results, the curriculum map is the first place to look.”²⁵ An effective map also ensures appropriate coverage of development to achieve the LO. 

When assessing LOs and/or activities, faculty and staff routinely use MOPs and MOEs to identify what works and what does not work during developmental events. MOPs are used to determine if faculty and staff are doing to standard what they say they are doing. MOEs are used to determine if the provided programs and experiences are achieving the desired outcomes. 

Use of USMA’s MOEs is most effective when they are used to assess longitudinally desired outcomes so that cadet development is assessed as it progresses. Assessing learning outcomes can be challenging when the outcomes are broad and intangible. In these cases, it is essential that the activity has a solid theoretic foundation for what, why, and how it is being done. It is also important that the MOPs indicate that the activity is conducted as planned.

Individual assessments in the classrooms or activities lead to assessing a course or activity’s LOs, which then inform the annual assessments of disciplinary majors and core courses, and then of the programs (academic, military, and physical).

Annual program assessment reports inform directorate²⁶ annual reports, which provide assessments on the USMA Strategy’s Lines of Effort.²⁷ The content of directorate annual reports specific to cadet development include:

• Updates on contributions and assessments to the USMA Strategy and the Superintendent’s Annual Guidance.
• Assessments of program outcomes.
• Updates on and assessments of character integration efforts, including the directorate’s contributions to Comprehensive Character Development.

USMA accomplishes its mission when its graduates live honorably, lead honorably, and demonstrate excellence. Thus, at the institution level, there is a systematic assessment of the WPLDS outcomes and processes using multiple internal and external indicators. 

Since all program outcomes are aligned with the WPLDS outcomes, program assessments directly support the assessment of the WPLDS outcomes. Through these assessments, West Point determines if the programs and experiences are achieving the desired outcomes.

Using multiple internal and external indicators, the WPLDS Committee completes the WPLDS Annual Report. This Annual Report is a major component of the overall USMA Annual Report, which is the culmination of the USMA annual assessment process. The USMA Annual Report informs the Superintendent’s Annual Guidance for the upcoming academic year.

Example internal and external indicators used to assess the WPLDS outcomes for the Annual Report include:

• Academic, military, and physical program assessments
• Executive summaries of core courses and disciplinary majors
• Periodic Development Reports (PDRs) and Cadet Observation Reports (CORs)
• Numerous external (national, DOD, Department of the Army) cadet and faculty surveys
• Internal surveys and focus groups with cadets, faculty, staff, and coaches.

A more comprehensive description of USMA’s assessment processes is in USMA Regulation MA-19-02, Strategic Planning and Institutional Effectiveness (SPIE) Processes.

Endnotes and definitions of italicized terms can be found in Glossaries and Endnotes by Section.

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